This lab is designed to introduce you to the number of factors that influence temperature at Earth's surface.
First, we will begin by studying how the amount of insolation received at the Earth's surface varies from
place to place. The variation of insolation leads to variations in temperature. Other factors, such as, land-
water contrasts, ocean currents, and wind patterns and air masses also influence temperatures. In addition,
we will explore how altitude affects temperatures.
Objectives:
Measure surface variation in temperature
Construct a temperature graph
Calculate temperature range
Name
Part 1: Incoming Solar Radiation & Surface Variations
The amount of incoming solar radiation (insolation) varies by latitude and by season. Since the sun's energy is
our primary source of energy, this radiation imbalance leads to temperature differences. Why do we see this
variation in insolation received?
Atmospheric Obstruction- clouds, haze, etc.
** Both of these factors vary by latitude and by season
Insolation received depends on:
Angle of Incidence**- the angle at which the sun's rays hit the Earth's surface- direct vs oblique angles.
Day Length**- the amount of time the sun is above the horizon
Exercise 6.1:
Calculate average annual temperature
Identify global temperature patterns and to
explore the reasons for these patterns.
Calculate the Average Lapse Rate
Recap from Lab 5. Select the BOLD word that is correct.
1. Places closer to the equator have HIGHER or LOWER solar altitudes and MORE or LESS variation in
daylength.
2. Places closer to the poles have HIGHER or LOWER solar altitudes and MORE or LESS variation in
daylength.
Let's explore how surface variations affect the energy received.
Albedo- the ability of an object to reflect radiation
Low Albedo surfaces: asphalt, aged concrete, dark roof/paint, dark soil, dark rock, forests, grass
High Albedo surfaces: snow/ ice, new concrete, light roof/ paint, sand/desert
Select the BOLD word that is correct.
3. Light colored surfaces have a HIGHER or LOWER albedo, thus reflecting MORE or LESS energy.
4. Dark colored surfaces have a HIGHER or LOWER albedo, thus reflecting MORE or LESS energy.
1 5. Relating this to Earth, which of the following surfaces reflect more and which reflect less? Classify the
following locations as having a low or high albedo.
a. Antarctica (ice sheet)
b. Lava Flow in Hawaii (black)
c. Aged Concrete Sidewalk
d. Greek Village with white houses
Part 2: Annual Temperature Variations
Temperature - sensible heat (energy that you feel)
Air is heated from the ground up by outgoing longwave radiation emitted from the Earth, not by
incoming shortwave insolation.
There is a lag time between the Earth receiving the shortwave insolation and remitting the energy as
longwave radiation. Although insolation peaks at noon, net radiation (the difference between
incoming and outgoing energy) continues to be positive (i.e. there is a surplus of energy) until the early
afternoon, causing temperatures to rise. Net radiation is negative (i.e. there is a deficit of energy) from
early afternoon until sunrise, causing temperatures to cool down. This also happens on an annual basis-
think about the hottest month of the year compared to the month seeing the highest solar altitude.
There are two important measures of annual temperature. The first measure is the temperature range-
the difference in temperature between the warmest month and the coldest month. This value is a very
useful indicator of seasonality of temperature- the amount of temperature change over the year. The
second is annual average temperature, which we will look at in Part 3.
Maximum Temperature - Minimum Temperature
Temperature Range:
Exercise 6.2:
Use the temperature graphs at the end of the lab to complete this section.
1. Calculate the Temperature Range for the following locations. Note: the temperatures displayed on the
graphs are the average temperatures for each month. St. Louis has been completed for you.
St. Louis, MO
=
Fairbanks, Alaska
Lihue, HI
Warmest Month-
Average Temperature
78° F
Coldest Month-
Average Temperature
2. How does latitude affect temperature range?
30° F
Temperature Range
78° -30° 48°
2 3. How does latitude affect temperature?
Part 3: Coastal Versus Continental Locations
Land heats and cools faster than water for the following reasons:
LAND
Lower Specific heat
Immobile - prevents mixing
Less Evaporation
Radiation concentrated at surface
Specific Heat: Amount of energy needs to raise 1 gram of a substance 1 degree of Celsius.
Results: Continental locations experience greater seasonal extremes- hotter summers and colder
winters (larger temperature range).
Coastal locations experience more moderate, uniform temperatures (lower temperature
range).
Annual average temperature averages all high and low temperature values for a location over the
course of the year to give a single, coarse measure of temperature.
Average Annual Temperature = Sum of the temperatures/ Number of temperatures
Exercise 6.3:
Average Monthly Temperatures for 3 Cities:
San Francisco, CA-- 37.6°N, 122.4°W
Temperature
| (°F)
Temperature
(°F)
J
49
Wichita, Kansas-- 37.7°N, 97.4°W
J
7
30
Temperature
(°F)
52
J
39
F
33
Norfolk, Virginia-- 36.9°N, 76.2°W
M
53
F
41
M
44
M
49
A
56
A
56
A
57
M
58
M
65
M
66
J
61
WATER
Higher Specific Heat
Mobile- allows mixing
More Evaporation
Radiation penetrates below surface
J
74
J
74
J
63
J
80
J
78
A
64
A
79
A
77
S
64
S
70
S
72
O
61
O
58
O
61
N
55
N
44
N
52
D
49
D
34
D
44
1. Compute the Temperate Range and Average Annual Temperature for San Francisco, Wichita, and
Norfolk. Check Your answer using the Lab Six Temperature Data Excel file.
3 2. Construct a temperature graph by plotting the Average Monthly Temperatures on the Graph below or
by using Excel.
Use red to plot San Francisco, blue for Wichita, and green for Norfolk.
Annual Temperature Graph
°F
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
O
-10
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A 'S
O
N
D
10°C(50°F)
5°C(41°F)
0°C(32°F)
-5°C(23°F)
3. Based on the data provided, describe the relationship between continental/coastal locations and
temperature range.
4. Why does San Francisco have a smaller temperature range than Norfolk, Virginia, even though both are
located on coasts? Keep in mind that the prevailing winds are from the west.
4 Part 4: Average Lapse Rate- change in temperature as a result in altitude change.
Average Lapse Rate: 3.6° F/ 1000 feet or 6.5° C/ 1000 meters
Steps for calculating the Lapse Rate
Example: If the temperature is 93.6° F at 1000 feet, what would the temperature be like at 5000 feet?
Step 1: Find the Elevation Difference: Maximum – Minimum
5000-1000 = 4000 feet
Step 2: Set up equivalent fractions and cross multiply:
(Temp)
3.6° F
X
(Elevation)
1000 ft
4000 ft
=
(4000* 3.6)/1000 = 14.4° F
Step 3: If calculating for a higher elevation, subtract degrees from starting temperature. If calculating
for a low elevation, add degrees to starting temperature.
93.6° F 14.4° F = 79.2° F at 5000 ft
Exercise 6.4:
Calculate the temperature using the average lapse rate for the locations listed below. Round your answers to
one decimal place.
1. Currently the temperature is 99° F in San Bernardino (elevation 1200 ft). Using the ALR, calculate the
temperature in Big Bear Lake (elevation 6,752 ft) and San Gorgonio Peak (elevation 11,499 ft). You may
want to sketch a diagram to help you visualize the problem.
2. Looking at the temperature graph for Lihue (elevation 103 ft) and Kilauea (elevation 1134 ft). Does the
environmental lapse rate explain the temperature differences between these two locations? Explain
your reasoning.
5/n
1. Consider a three-phase power system with one-line diagram shown in Figure 1. The three-phase trans- former between CBs 1 and 2 (CB: circuit breaker) nameplate ratings are listed: 5MVA, 13.8A-138.0YkV, the transformer reactance X₁1 = 3.80 (viewed from low voltage side 13.8kV, resistance is negligible). The impedance of the transmission line between CBs 3 and 4 is ZL1 = (10+j100). -(50 pts) (a) Pick up SB = 100MVA for the entire three-phase system, and rated voltage VB = 138.0kV, calculate the per-unit line L1 and transformer impedance values. (b) If an SLG fault occurs at the midpoint of the line (L2) between CBs 5 and 6, which breaker(s) should operate? If the CB 5 or CB 6 does not operate, which breaker(s) will provide the backup protection? (c) List the operating CB(s) for different zones, which are listed in Figure 2. (d) If the second generator is connected at bus 3, the system (generators, buses, and transmission lines) is protected by overcurrent relays R1 to R12. Assuming the directional overcurrent relays are used for three transmission lines, what is the remote backup relay(s) for R7? And why? G Generator mm www Transformer - GSU Bus 1 depending on which breakfas Bus 3 Transmission line L1 Shunt Reactor L3 Shunt Capacitor Figure 1: A three-phase power system. Bus 2 Distribution Transformer Feeder
Q1. Calculate capillary rise/fall in a glass tube 2 mm diameter when immersed in (a) water (b) mercury.Both the liquids are at 20°C and the surface tension values at this temperature for water and mercury are 0.072 N/m and 0.052 N/m respectively. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. The contact angle of water and mercury are 0° and 130° respectively.
The switch in the circuit has been closed for a long time, and it is opened at t=0. Find v(t) for t>= 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor. (a). When the switch is closed, calculate the value of Vc. (b). When the switch is opened, find the time constant. (c). Find v(t) for t>= 0. (d). Find p(t) for t>= 0. (e). Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor.
• 2-40 Water is being heated in a closed pan on top of a range while being stirred by a paddle wheel. During the process, 30 kJ of heat is transferred to the water, and 5 kj of heat is lost to the surrounding air. The paddle-wheel work amounts to 500 N:m. Determine the final energy of the system if its initial energy is 12.5 kJ.
A rigid 10-L vessel initially contains a mixture of liquid water and vapor at 100° C with 12.3 percent quality. The mixture is then heated until its temperature is 150° C. Calculate the heat transfer required for this process in kJ.
3.19. An ideal gas initially at 600 K and 10 bar undergoes a four-step mechanically reversible cycle in a closed system. In step 12, pressure decreases isothermally to 3 bar; instep 23. pressure decreases at constant volume to 2 bar; in step 34, volume decreases at constant pressure; and in step 41, the gas returns adiabatically to its initial state.Take Cp = (7/2)R and Cy = (5/2)R. (a) Sketch the cycle on a PV diagram. (b) Determine (where unknown) both T and P for states 1, 2, 3, and 4. \text { (c) Calculate } Q, W, \Delta U, \text { and } \Delta H \text { for each step of the cycle. }
4) Refrigerant-134a enters the condenser of a residential heat pump at 800 kPa and 35°C at a rate of 0.018 kg/s and leaves atS00 kPa as a saturated liquid. If the compressor consumes 1.2 kW of power, determine (a) the COP of the heat pump and(b) the rate of heat absorption from the outside air.
E2A.6(a) A sample of 4.50g of methane occupies 12.7 dm3 at 310 K. (i) Calculate the work done when the gas expands isothermally against a constant external pressure of 200 Torr until its volume has increased by 3.3 dm². (ii) Calculate the work that would be done if the same expansion occurred reversibly. E2A.6(b) A sample of argon of mass 6.56g occupies 18.5 dm3 at 305 K.(i) Calculate the work done when the gas expands isothermally against a constant external pressure of 7.7kPa until its volume has increased by 2.5 dm3.(ii) Calculate the work that would be done if the same expansion occurred reversibly. F=\frac{k T}{2 l} \ln \left(\frac{1+v}{1-v}\right) \quad v=\frac{n}{N} where k is Boltzmann's constant, N is the total number of units, and l= 45 nm for DNA. (a) What is the magnitude of the force that must be applied to extend a DNA molecule with N=200 by 90 nm? (b) Plot the restoring force against v, noting that v can be either positive or negative. How is the variation of the restoring force with end-to-end distance different from that predicted by Hooke's law? (c) Keeping in mind that the difference in end-to-end distance from an equilibrium value is x = nl and, consequently, dx = ldn= Nldv,write an expression for the work of extending a DNA molecule. Hint: You must integrate the expression for w. The task can be accomplished best with mathematical software.
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Q3.1. Yeast have mitochondria and can perform cellular respiration. What would you expect to be consumed and produced during the process of cellular respiration in yeast? a.Glucose and O2 consumed; CO2 H20, and energy produced. b.Glucose, H2O, CO2, and energy consumed; O2 produced. c. CO2 and H2O consumed; glucose, O2, and energy produced. d. CO2 and energy consumed; H20, 02, and energy produced.